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Useful references and guided explanations for when you need more than a number.

01 / REFERENCE Common IonsCharges and formulas of frequently encountered monatomic ions. 02 / REFERENCE Polyatomic IonsUseful polyatomic ion formulas and charges. 03 / REFERENCE Solubility RulesA quick guide to predicting solubility of ionic compounds in water at room temperature. 04 / REFERENCE Chemistry ConstantsFrequently used constants for introductory chemistry calculations. 05 / REFERENCE Chemistry FormulasCore relationships with their units and intended use. 06 / REFERENCE Chemistry ReferenceAn accessible starting point for chemistry notation, units and calculations. 07 / REFERENCE Useful Chemistry TablesHandy unit relationships and common reference values. 08 / GUIDE How to Calculate Molar MassAdd the atomic masses of every atom in a chemical formula, accounting for subscripts and groups. For H₂O: 2 × 1.008 + 15.999 = 18.015 g/mol. Hydrates must include their waters of crystallization. 09 / GUIDE How to Calculate MolarityDivide the amount of dissolved solute in moles by the final volume of solution in liters. For 0.50 mol in 2.0 L, M = 0.25 mol/L. Do not use the volume of solvent alone. 10 / GUIDE How to Balance Chemical EquationsBalance equations by changing coefficients in front of formulas, never subscripts within a formula. Check that each element has the same total atom count on both sides. 11 / GUIDE How to Calculate pHUse pH = −log₁₀[H⁺] with concentration in mol/L. For [H⁺] = 1.0 × 10⁻³ mol/L, pH = 3. This relationship uses hydrogen ion activity approximately equal to concentration in dilute solutions. 12 / GUIDE How to Solve Stoichiometry ProblemsStart with a balanced equation, convert the known quantity to moles, apply the coefficient ratio, then convert to the desired unit. A balanced reaction is essential. 13 / GUIDE How to Calculate Percent YieldDivide the actual measured yield by the theoretical maximum yield, then multiply by 100%. Keep both yields in the same units. Values above 100% can indicate impurities or measurement error. 14 / GUIDE How to Use the Ideal Gas LawUse PV = nRT with consistent units: P in atm, V in liters, n in moles and T in kelvin when R = 0.082057 L·atm·mol⁻¹·K⁻¹. Gas behavior departs from ideality at high pressure and low temperature.
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